February, 2008 Vol. V, No.
2 |
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Welcome
to the
Over the
Airwaves
aviation journal. This complimentary e-publication
is prepared monthly for pilots and aviation enthusiasts around the
world. Its aim
is to promote
flight safety, encourage students and new pilots, and to build
enthusiasm for aviation in general.
Airplanes vs. Pilots Where would our general aviation flight safety record be if we pilots were held to the same preparation and proficiency standards that are imposed upon aircraft manufacturers and maintenance personnel? While this question is likely to stir considerable debate, it is not an "apples and oranges" issue as many might proclaim. Pilots and airplanes form the man-machine interface that make up any given flight. Thus, it would make sense that each of these two elements be treated similarly. Curiously, the standards to which man and machine are held are not even remotely close! It takes several years or more to certify a new aircraft. New pilots are certified with just 35 to 40 hours of dual and solo experience.
The airplanes we fly are inspected after every 100 hours, if they are used for hire, and every 12 months regardless. We pilots receive a 1 hour ground and 1 hour flight review every 2 years! The proof is in the pudding! The differences in standards for pilots and airplanes are readily revealed in our accident data.
Clearly, of the two elements in the man-machine interface, the man (pilot) is the weak link. He is, in fact, 8 times more likely to be responsible for fatal aircraft mishaps than the airplane he is flying. The economic realities Critics of this comparison between pilot and aircraft standards fiercely argue that economic realities preclude us from imposing the same standards on pilots as we do on aircraft manufacturers and maintenance personnel. These pinheads (to borrow a term from Fox TV commentator, Bill O'Reilly), insist that there would be a mass exodus of private pilots if training and proficiency standards were increased. Hmmmm . . . let's compare the relative economic health of our highly regulated airplane manufacturing and maintenance industry versus our marginally monitored and minimally regulated population of private pilots.
There are now over 75 different makes and models of new light sport aircraft alone, not to mention the recent revivals of Beechcraft, Cessna, Mooney, and Piper. Very light jets (VLJs), despite rigorous certification requirements, are now rolling off of the assembly line. New aircraft sales are at a record high, all while we are witnessing the "graying" of the GA pilot population. In other words, the airplane element of the man-machine interface, despite onerous regulation and high standards, is thriving while the man element, despite loosey-goosey standards and minimal regulation, is sliding down a slippery slope to possible extinction. Is there a message here for us? Is there a message? You bet. While we pilots may take comfort in our world of minimal regulation and while our flight schools feel no remorse in turning out pilots that barely meet the FAA's Practical Test Standards, the only way to turn things around is through improved pilot proficiency. Not surprisingly, improved proficiency requires specific action. Here's an example of just how bad things are. I was doing an aircraft checkout earlier this month for a young lady who earned her instrument rating last July. In the process, we encountered instrument conditions. I obtained a pop-up instrument clearance and instructed the pilot to continue on with the flight. Almost immediately, I noted beads of perspiration on her forehead. I asked if she was okay. She responded saying, "I've never been in the clouds before!" Recall, this lady had received her instrument rating right here in the Buffalo, NY area where overcast skies occur almost every week. See the problem? This instrument rated pilot was not provided the skills or confidence to remain upright in the clouds. Yet she fulfilled the current training standards for an instrument rating. Heck, we have dozens of instrument instructors (CFIIs) who, themselves, have never been in the clouds! This shortcoming in our training standards, alone, is laughable. No, it's NOT laughable. Instead, it is a cruel deception that is causing unnecessary loss of pilot and passenger lives! And the same can be said about pilots who were never trained in crosswinds in excess of 12 to 14 knots. Sadly, the same can also be said about pilots who never received aggressive cross-controlled and accelerated stall training. The list goes on and on. So what action should we pilots and flight schools be taking?
Similarly, we (both pilots and flight schools) must understand that the FAA mandated standards by which we qualify and train as private pilots are woefully inadequate and incomplete to produce safe, proficient pilots. More importantly, we must understand that if these were the ONLY piloting standards to which we achieved, our life expectancy aloft is in serious question. In summary,
quality counts in aviation just like in most other
aspects of human endeavor. Japan learned this
lesson in the 1970s. China is now beginning to
understand it. When we GA pilots finally learn it,
that's when we'll see a marked reduction in our
deplorable (100 times worse than the airlines) GA fatal
accident rate.
Bob
Miller, ATP, CFII
Flying right ! ! One of my favorite flight training exercises is to ask the pilot to remove his hands from the yoke or stick, then watch the gauges. In cruise flight, those gauges ought to look like those shown below.
In cruise flight, the ball should be centered, the airplane should be on the desired heading, plus or minus 0 degrees, and it should be locked in on the desired altitude, plus or minus 0 feet. Remember, no hands! A reality check . . . Non-proficient pilots are not very good at this exercise. The culprit, of course, is poor trimming. Instead, they struggle with the yoke or stick in a never ending battle to maintain a specified heading and altitude.
The poor man's autopilot! Precision hands-free flying is nearly the same as having a $30,000 autopilot. Aside from an occasional adjustment for outside air convection, a well-trimmed airplane should hold heading and altitude, plus or minus 0 degrees and feet, for a comfortably long time! A word about aircraft rigging This hands-free exercise depends, of course, in having a correctly rigged airplane. If, after practice, you are unable to keep the ball centered while maintaining desired heading without using the yoke or stick, adjustments to your airplane's rigging are likely required. Know Your Clearance Limit!
Given the ease of plugging fixes into our GPS boxes and, even better, pre-loading the instrument approach we plan to fly, it's easy to violate FAR 91.123! FAR 91. 123 requires us to comply with all ATC issued clearances. If that clearance takes us to our destination airport, that is precisely where ATC expects us to go. So what's the problem? Here's the problem. Let's say that we're handed off to the local approach controller just prior to reaching our destination. The controller says, "Nxxx, descend and maintain 4,000, expect the GPS Runway 25 approach via OPDEC." The instrument proficient pilot will, of course, continue flying to the airport. The less-than-proficient pilot, on the other hand, might be inclined to alter his course and immediately head to OPDEC. In this scenario, the clearance limit is still the airport. We cannot proceed to OPDEC until we are cleared to do so. This clearance will come something like this: "Nxxxx, maintain 4000 until crossing OPDEC, you are cleared for the GPS Runway 25 approach." When in doubt, Confirm! It should go without saying that, when in doubt as to where we should be heading, query the controller! Also, confirm the active waypoint displayed on the GPS map page. That active waypoint should match the controller's expectation of where we are heading to next. A word about assigned altitudes Let's say that we are approaching our destination airport at 6,000 feet. ATC calls and issues our instrument approach clearance. We check the instrument approach plate and note that the specified altitude for the initial approach fix is 4,000 feet. Can we descend to 4,000 feet immediately upon receiving our approach clearance? Answer: NO! Remember always . . . when on an instrument flight plan, there are ONLY four ways we are authorized to descend when on an instrument flight plan: (1) when instructed to do so by ATC; (2) when cleared and on a published segment of a published approach procedure; (3) when cleared for the visual approach, and (4) when our engine quits or similar emergency exists Again, if ever in doubt about when to change altitudes, ask the controller. New Online Weather Site
The National Weather Service's Aviation Digital Data Service (ADDS) has come out with another remarkably useful weather site for pilots. Designed specifically for emergency medical service helicopter pilots, this JAVA powered site offers quick and detailed graphic access to METARs, TAFs, IFR, VFR, Icing potential and prediction, radar, and numerous other weather products. Click HERE and give it a try. You'll like it! Thanks to OTA reader, Mark Croce of Buffalo, NY for sharing this site with us. See the Lights . . . How low can I go?
An instrument approach to minimums The captain was at the controls while the first officer was calling out the altitude remaining and monitoring the airspeed as they slithered down the final approach course. "See anything yet," asked the captain? "I've got some ground contact," replied the FO. Just four seconds later, the FO called "Decision Height." The captain responded, "I got lights." The FO concurred saying, "Got the, got the lights." One second later, there was a tone, similar to an autopilot/yaw dampener disconnect. One second after that, the first officer said, "Continue," then he added, "You still on the ah?" The captain responded with, "Whoa." The cockpit voice recorder went silent on second later. The aircraft descended into the water and impacted a series of approach light stanchions, commencing about 2,000 feet from the runway. Curiously, neither crew member continued to call out altitudes after seeing the approach lights. According to the NTSB report, the captain descended the airplane below the decision height before having the requisite descent criteria. The crash investigators concluded that the absence of ground references could have been conducive to a featureless terrain illusion in which the captain would have believed that the airplane was at a higher altitude than it actually was. There were no mechanical anomalies which would have precluded normal airplane operation.
Okay, so what really went wrong? Here we have an 18,000 hour ATP/CFI rated pilot with over 7,500 hours in the Learjet 35 and a 3,500 hour first officer who is a retired air traffic controller. The combined skill-set of that crew doesn't get much better than that! So what went wrong? Was it the common enemy of high time pilots known as complacency? Don't think so. Both pilots seemed to be keenly focused on the approach. Obviously, we'll never know for sure what was going on in the cockpit that fateful day, but we can draw some valuable lessons from the event. First lesson: NEVER, EVER, no not ever, violate FAR 91.175! That's the regulation that specifies what the pilot must see before committing to landing when on an instrument approach. The box below lists these items:
Second Lesson: We should never descend another foot when in IMC unless we know precisely where we are (and what lies below us). If uncertain, stop the descent immediately and find out where we are! Third Lesson:
A word about daylight operations in IFR conditions . . . it is especially important that the runway lights be turned on to maximum intensity during daylight IMC operations. DO NOT forget to do this! If nothing else, the tragic accident described above provides convincing evidence that bad things do happen to good pilots. It also demonstrates that total logbook hours are NOT a good predictor of a safe outcome. In the final analysis, only two things rule in aviation. One is pilot proficiency and the other is luck! For one last reminder, click HERE. Thanks to Paul Pederson of Buffalo, NY for sharing this linked graphic with us. "Atta-Boy" Award to Piper Malibu Pilot
Moments later you hear a loud bang and your forward view is totally obscured by black oil. Later you discover that the propeller departed your airplane! What do you do? If you are a proficient pilot, you pitch to best glide speed and head for the nearest airport. Equally important, you do NOT panic! This is just what pilot Barry Cox did earlier this month. Click HERE to view a 5 minute TV interview with Barry regarding this remarkable ordeal. After viewing this interview, you will see how training and experience plays a critical role in keeping us safe aloft. Thanks to Chris Glowacki of Plum TV in New York City for sharing this link with us.Required ATC Reports
Take a few minutes and review the following list of required reports. Instrument students note: This is a favorite topic of designated pilot examiners (DPEs) when conducting the instrument oral for the practical test! At all times:
When not in radar contact:
Any pilot who encounters weather conditions that have not been forecast, or hazardous conditions which have been forecast, is expected to forward a report of such weather to ATC. Guest Editorial
If you have something pertinent to say about the safety of flight and you would like to have it read by pilots around the world, please send it in. If we publish it, you will receive your very own "official" OTA coffee cup! Please note the approximate space limitation illustrated by the guest editorial below.
Roger, your poignant reminder that we pilots must be ever-vigilant, both visually and on the radio, is very much appreciated. Non-Towered Airports - Beware!
The likelihood of two aircraft colliding in flight and each landing safely without injuries or worse defies the odds! But this is what happened on New Year's Day this year during a "fly-in" at the Sonoma County Airport, CA. The remarkable photos (left) taken by photographer, Roger Cain, tell the story better than words.
According to the preliminary NTSB report, both pilots were attempting to land at the same time. The low wing Cherokee appears to have descended atop of the high wing Glastar. The Cherokee pilot continued to land while the Glastar pilot applied power and, due to control problems, went on and landed safely at the nearby Napa County Airport.
Listening on the radio is not enough! Many of us take comfort in listening on the radio for other nearby traffic. This is like depending solely on a "green traffic light" when approaching an intersection in our automobiles. Avoiding a mid-air collision is 99% visual and 1% radio. Let's never forget that! Your Donations Help Spread the Safety Word! Every pilot mishap, damaged airplane, serious injury (and worse) weakens the foundation of general aviation. Everything from the public's perceptions of small airplanes to insurance premiums takes a serious hit every time we pilots do something dumb in an airplane. With your donor support, Over the Airwaves is bringing critical safety tips, lessons, and examples of what not to do in airplanes to pilots around the world. Just one monthly issue can have a profound effect on pilot behavior. The more pilots we reach, the safer our skies become.
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and for pilots all over the globe. Jimmy Doolittle's Raiders - A step back in history Click HERE to open a series of photos of Jimmy Doolittle's famous raid on Tokyo. Note: A high speed internet connection is required.Traffic Pattern Directions - Get them right (left)? We are approaching an unfamiliar, non-towered airport and are about to enter the traffic pattern. Is it left traffic or right traffic? Does it make any difference? A quick reference to FAR 91.126 has the answer:
Sounds simple enough, right? Well, let's explore what could happen when we travel around the pattern in the wrong direction!
Approaching Fitchburg, the student pilot announced his position as 4 miles northeast of the airport, inbound for runway 32. At the time, another Cessna 172, flown by a 190 hour private pilot, was performing touch and go landings on runway 32. The student pilot then announced that he was on downwind for runway 32. There was only one apparent problem. He was on a the RIGHT downwind leg for an airport having a left-hand traffic pattern. Can you guess what happened next? According to witnesses, the private pilot, operating properly in a left hand pattern, turned on final. Apparently not seeing the private pilot on final, the student pilot turned on final just behind the private pilot.
Here's what's recorded in the NTSB report:
As fate would have it, the student pilot survived the ordeal (with serious injuries), but the private pilot that he collided with was killed. Here is the NTSB Probable Cause finding:
Lessons: Tragic accidents such as this have only one redeeming value. That value is the lesson(s) we learn from it. In this particular case, the lessons are many, as follows:
Spins! Can't you feel them coming???
There was something unusual about this fellow's flight attitude. Witnesses said that the airplane was in "slow flight in a nose high attitude." The airplane then turned steeply onto the base leg. According to the NTSB report, the airplane's wings rolled level and the airplane began to porpoise. During the porpoise, the witness noted hearing changes to the engine power. The airplane then entered another steep left turn with the wings almost vertical to terrain. Another witness said, "I could see the entire top of the plane during the turn and the engine RPM was increased dramatically, maybe to full power."The witness observed the "nose pitch up and the right wing stall...as if a falling leaf." Subsequently, the airplane entered a spin (1.5 rotations) and impacted terrain. The witness stated that during his observation "the engine was operating under power the entire time." A classic stall/spin in the traffic pattern Unfortunately, these tragic stall/spin scenarios continue to occur about once a week in the United States. As we reduce airspeed for landing, our angle of attack increases. Everything is fine until we turn onto the base leg. We forget that our steepening bank angle produces a corresponding increase in our stall speed. Low and slow with an increasing back angle produces the predictable result. The nose suddenly drops. We apply power and pitch up. This addition of power yaws the airplane as the four left turning tendencies suddenly exert their powerful influence on our flight attitude. And so another pilot (and passenger) dies needlessly in a perfectly functioning airplane. So what's the solution? Curiously, we do not need to actually place an airplane in a spin to develop the required kinesthetic senses that precede them. Instead, we simply need to become comfortable with cross-controlled and accelerated stalls. Let's take a close look at each of these spin awareness-inducing stalls.
Accelerated Stalls: Accelerated stalls vividly illustrate how the stall speed increases with bank angle. Place the airplane in a steep (45 degree) bank. Hold altitude as you reduce power while still in the turn. The airplane will eventually stall, but at a higher airspeed than it does in level flight. Not surprisingly, the airplane will be turning when it stalls. The nose will suddenly drop and the airplane will enter a steep descending spiral. As with the cross-controlled stall described above, the recovery is simple. Push the yoke or stick forward, reduce power, and level the wings. When performed properly, an accelerated stall is a dramatic maneuver that simulates a spin without actually entering a spin. The FAA includes stalls and spin awareness training as an area of special emphasis in the Private Pilot Practical Test Standards (PTS). They do so for very good reason. In summary, the spin training opponents are correct when they say that stall/spins in the traffic pattern are not recoverable. New York Adirondack/Vermont Mountain Tour
This trip brings both VFR and IFR pilots deep into NY's Adirondack Mountains and Vermont's Green Mountains. Pilots experience short fields surrounded by steep slopes and rugged terrain as well as the unique wind patterns associated with mountainous terrain. Click HERE to learn more about Bob Miller Flight Training, Inc. and the NY Adirondack/Vermont Mountain training tour.Wind Shears - Natures little but deadly surprises! You're on final approach to landing and we hear the tower controller report a gain or loss of 15 knots. What is he telling us? Yep . . . a wind shear is occurring near the airport and we had better be ready for significant altitude deviations. Caution, this is no time to be flying low and slow on the approach!
Wind Shears - what are they? Wind shears are typically associated with thunderstorms and
low-level temperature inversions, but they can also be produced by a
passing warm
In most instances, wind shear occurs horizontally. A more severe form of wind shear can occur vertically. Such vertical wind shears are produced by downdrafts and microbursts associated with nearby thunderstorms. Best defense against wind shear-related accidents The number one defense against wind shears is a thorough
weather briefing before leaving the ground. Obviously, thunderstorms in
the area
A quick look at the winds aloft chart will reveal the presence of a low level temperature inversion. Similarly, reference to a surface analysis chart will signal the presence of frontal movement over your airport. Each of these conditions, of course, could indicate the presence of wind shear. The terminal area forecast (TAF) will also announce the presence of wind shear over or near your airport. Pilot reports from landing aircraft are one of the best wind shear warning tools in the proficient pilot's arsenal of weather avoidance weapons. If we hear a pilot ahead of us on the approach call "Loss of 15 knots (or more) on final," beware! Ultimately, increasing airspeed is our best defense if we suspect wind shear on the approach. If we normally fly the approach at 90 knots, consider increasing it to 110 knots. If we pass over the runway threshold at, say, 70 knots, consider increasing it to 90 knots. Aero-News.Net Features OTA in Podcasts
"Icing and VFR into IFR" is the latest in a series of podcasts I have been doing with Aero-News.Net's Paul Plack. You can hear, or download for later listening, these 15 minute interviews and any of the previously conducted podcasts by clicking on the titles below:
By the way, Aero-News.Net is a FREE daily online publication that is packed with aviation related news. It is the first thing I read every morning. You can log on to Aero-News.Net and subscribe for your free subscription by clicking HERE. Breaking the Accident Chain Early! Some of us tire of reading about the sad mishaps of other pilots because we believe that such things cannot happen to us. So, in the interest of keeping us all sensitive to the rare possibility that even we can make mistakes, we have yet another sad scenario to review.
This, of course, was the first link of an unfolding accident chain that would eventually result in a fatal accident. Enroute to the first of several different airports they had planned to use, the generator annunciator light began to flicker. For some reason, the CFI elected to continue this night training flight with a failing generator. Here, of course , is the second link in the accident chain. Enroute to the last of their three planned airports, both the student and the CFI noted the fuel gauges showing very little remaining fuel. Fortunately, they were close to the airport, but by this time their electrical system had totally failed and they were unable to activate the pilot controlled lighting at the airport! The CFI made two attempts at landing at this dark airport. On the second attempt, the aircraft struck a ditch and nosed over. The CFI survived but his student was killed in the wreck. Two but serious links in the chain! Annunciator lights and fuel gauges, particularly in older airplanes, can be quirky. Not surprisingly, pilots have been known to discount them for this reason. Similarly, fuel tanks are occasionally smaller than in more recent iterations of the same make and model aircraft. Thus, one can see how or why these two critical links in the accident chain played a key role in the ultimate outcome of this flight. There is a lesson here . . . Never ignore an annunciator light. Instead, treat it as a full-blown indication that something is mechanically wrong with the airplane. If on the ground, don't launch. If in the air, land as soon as practical. Similarly, size (of the tank) doesn't matter. Instead, we need to know for certain, in gallons or in pounds, precisely how much fuel is onboard our aircraft BEFORE launching! The Laymen's Solution to the Crowded Skies!! Hey, we don't make this stuff up. Below is a letter to the editor published on January 11, 2008 by the Kerrville (Texas) Daily Times newspaper.
Remember, these people vote, too. Thanks to OTA's crack proofreader, Barry McCollom of Kerrville, TX for sharing this item with us. Steep Turns . . . with no hands!
Watching non-proficient pilots struggle through steep turn exercises can be shear torture for a CFI or DPE. Curiously, with the proper technique, steep turns can be as simple as straight and level flight. In fact, they can be performed properly with our hands folded neatly on our lap! Theory first . . . As our airplane banks, lift is reduced. This lost lift can be restored by pitching up several degrees and/or by adding a touch of power. Thus, if we restore this lost lift, flying in a 45 degree banked turn is no different than flying straight and level. Trim is the key Go out and try it. With a safety pilot watching for other traffic, enter a 45 degree steep turn. As you do this, apply sufficient back pressure on the yoke or stick to maintain altitude. You may try adding 100 RPM to help maintain this altitude. This is the important part, apply sufficient nose-up trim to remove all control wheel pressures. Once that trim is dialed in, you can fold your hands on your lap and spin around and around at a 45 degree angle for hours! Helpful Sponsors Please click on the following images to learn more about each of these sponsors.
This is what makes aviation such a wondrous adventure. Unlike nearly every other human endeavor, piloting an airplane pits man against nature in a ritual of very high stakes poker. Curiously, there can only be winners in this game because folding one's cards while aloft is not an option.
Like poker, there are very few sure things in aviation. Any activity involving speed and altitude involves risks. It's up to us pilots to assess those risks and to ensure that we have the requisite knowledge and skills to resolve those risks.
Easier said than done!
Plumbing the depths of our aviating ability is easier said than done. Most of us are never quite sure how we will react in a given situation. For example, unexpected airframe icing or a total power failure over a major metropolitan area at night would cause most of us to question our airmanship skills.
Low-time or nonproficient instrument pilots looking squarely into the face of a 200 foot ceiling and 1/2 mile visibility would certainly question their needle centering skills. Similarly, high, gusty crosswinds over the landing runway can raise serious doubts in the minds of many pilots as would declining visibility or loss of ground contact.
Piloting self-analysis is a good thing!
As Captain Eddie proclaimed in the quote above, a healthy self-distrust of our flying skills is a good thing. One of the most powerful ways of assessing our flying skills is to fly frequently. Focus upon those aeronautical aspects of flight that produce anxiety. Write them down.
Then engage an experienced flight instructor (with emphasis on experienced) and replicate those anxiety-producing aeronautical experiences. Continue to repeat these experiences until the anxiety levels drop. In time, you'll begin to feel right at home with what once caused you to doubt your skills.
Remember, self-distrust is good. Not doing something about it is bad.
Bob
Miller, ATP, CFII 
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Similarly,
the airframe and power plant mechanics who maintain our
aircraft require 1 to 2 years of formal training or 30
months or more of supervised on-the-job training.
We pilots can push through the private pilot certificate
in 30 days or less and we can obtain an instrument
rating in 7 or 10 days!
According
to the AOPA's Air Safety Foundation's 2007 Nall Report,
as their chart on the left depicts, 79.1% of all fatal
accidents in 2006 were caused by the pilot and only 9.9%
were caused by mechanical or maintenance issues.
While
our total number of rapidly aging, loosely regulated pilots has dropped
nearly in half since 1970, our toughly regulated aircraft manufacturing
industry has been in a giant boom! 
We
pilots and flight schools can start by recognizing the
basic difference between minimal standards of
performance, e.g., the FAA's Practical Test Standards,
and optimal pilot proficiency. 
Try
this same exercise the next time you fly. Bring a safety pilot with you to
look out the window as you tweak your power and trim setting to achieve perfect
hands-free flight. 
There was nothing to
indicate trouble with this instrument approach to the Groton, CT Airport Runway
5 in June, 2006. The captain of this Learjet 35A had over 18,000 hours of
experience.
While this may seem
obvious, be certain that the runway lights are turned on and that they are turned
on to maximum intensity, if necessary. Similarly, if your destination has
pilot controlled lighting (PCL), YOU must turn on the runway lights.
In
this increasingly automated world of instrument flight,
it's easy to forget some the basics . . . such as making
required reports to ATC.
This
is a recently added 
This
particular case involves a 45 hour flight student from a well-known aviation
college in the northeast. He was flying a Cessna 172 on his second
cross-country flight to a non-towered field in Fitchburg, MA.
None
of us should ever experience what happened next. According to the NTSB
report, the student pilot overtook the private pilot and struck his airplane
from the rear. 
This
hapless RV-6A pilot was on the downwind last June for runway 34 at the
Greeley-Weld County Airport (GXY) in Greeley, Colorado. The weather was
good. Winds were light.
Proving that challenging cross-country
training flights are one of the best ways of developing
strong aeronautical decision making skills (ADM), a new
exciting itinerary has been added to the Bob Miller Flight
Training, Inc. training scenarios.
or
cold front. Simply speaking, they are produced by a sudden change in wind
direction (see illustration left). 
is
a sure-fire predictor of possible wind shear. 
It was a night training flight with a
primary student and his flight instructor. The student
had recently purchased a Cessna 152F. Prior to the
flight, the CFI, rather than the student performed the fuel
planning. Curiously, the CFI got it wrong and they
took off with less fuel than would be needed that fateful
night.
Any
pilot with more than 10 hours total time has likely
encountered an in-flight scenario where he wondered if he
were up to the task. His first solo flight, his first
crosswind landing, and later his first solo flight into the
clouds were likely times like this.